suff. 2.11. It also fully incorporates the most up-to-date evidence from the distinctive African branches of the family, Cushitic, Chadic, and Omotic. p-Igboid The reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic is problematic and . Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left Boreafrasian, the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. Semitic and Berber are quite closely related, and both are more distantly connected to Cushitic. In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. [78] An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Subgrouping) - this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. The languages of what is now Afro-Asiatic occupy a "vast area that stretches from Morocco to Arabia" (Dalby, p.6). South Bauchi [103][101] The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA;[133] in addition to deriving feminine nouns in many branches, it also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages. p-Ring Afro-Asiatic is a large language family with great diversity. To the south lay the other language families of Africa: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan (Atlas,p74). Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. suff. infix), fruit, seeds, foliage, plant growth in general, (Ch., Sem. *t: . [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). [103][53] In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. [151] Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gbor Takcs, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 June 2016 Alan S. Kaye Article Metrics Save PDF Summary of Numbered Sound Shift Rules; Index 1. 2.12. [121], As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. [98] AA languages tend to have pharyngeal fricative consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing and . Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. [181] Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. [140] Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Kim innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. The main quality of Afro-Asiatic is that it "cuts across usually perceived racial boundaries" (Dalby, p.6). [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. [75] Proponents of an African origin of Afroasiatic assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic African hunter-gatherers,[76] arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. PSom-III. shared innovation: n. for 'clay'), great (especially in size but also in number), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [40] Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. innovation: addition of * concisive to denote short, concentrated outflow, hence vomiting), (Sem., Eg. West Semitic brought forth such languages as Canaanite, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic (EL, p.906). with pre-PAA root *way thus having been a n. or adj. The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. 1995. Such evidence may reveal plants known to early Afroasiatic speakers; but it does not diagnose whether they were cultivated or wild. Voegelin, C.F. This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. Bijogo Kunama The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. [174] The Semitic genitive case in -i is probably related to "nisba" adjective derivation. p-Upper Cross River [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. It typically comprises Kartvelian, Indo-European, and Uralic languages; some languages from the disputed Altaic family; the Afroasiatic languages spoken in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East; and the Dravidian languages of the Indian Subcontinent (sometimes also Elamo-Dravidian, which connects India and the ), (Eg., Sem. Allan Bomhard's own reconstructions of Proto-Afroasiatic roots (and phonology) seem to be biased toward Proto-Indo-European and Nostratic roots . in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. [76] It may have originally mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. This original biblical genealogy reflected political rather than linguistic realities: thus the Canaanites are descendants of Ham, although their language is closely related to Hebrew, and the Elamites are descendants of Shem, although their language is not related to Hebrew at all. The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. Proto-Semitic was a contemporary of PIE. Bariba Proposed specific locations include the Horn of Africa, Egypt, the eastern Sahara, and the Levant. [41] In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. p-Central Togo Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. [159] The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. Tivoid However, not one of Militarev's proposed 32 agricultural roots can be considered diagnostic of cultivation. p-Maban Greenberg, 1958 D. Cohen,. Fig. Afro-Asiatic is divided into six branches: Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic and Omotic. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. See . [33] Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. [132] Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . Ayere-Ahan Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. NE Sudanic Defaka TV. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. p-Agaw [145] Edward Lipiski refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. North of the Sahara and the Ethiopian mountains are the Afro-Asiatic languages. Pp. [116], There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA. Nara New York: Elsevier, 1977. [40] The latest possible date for the existence of Proto-Afroasiatic is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are first attested; however, the languages must have diverged and evolved for some time before this. [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. innovation: n. 'morning' by addition of *r n. [77], Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found Central Sudanic (p-Central Sudanicp-Sara-Bongo-BagirmiSinyarBirrip-Mangbetu) Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. [165] This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. Roots Beginning with P and B - Oleg Linkohr 2020-03-15 . It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. [70] On the one hand, the classification of languages as "Hamitic" relied on linguistic features, such as the presence of male and female grammatical gender; thus Meinhof even split the Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic" and unrelated non-Hamitic Chadic based on which languages possessed gender. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. suff. innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. Mao Pre-Proto-Semitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1989) Appendix 2. Laal [121] For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. p-South Bauchi p-Ron innovation: added meaning 'firm,' hence, figuratively, 'firmly established, strong'), to intertwine, to bind by twining together, to be above, be at the top, form the tip or peak, (Sem., Ch. [84] Prominent in this camp is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . [94], Several Afroasiatic languages have large numbers of consonants, and it is likely that Proto-Afroasiatic did as well:[95] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova reconstruct 32 consonant phonemes,[96] while Christopher Ehret reconstructs 42. p-Idomoid [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. ), to extend, stretch out (intr. ), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. Afroasiatic(Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasianand in older sources as Hamito-Semitic(Chamito-Semitic)[3]or Semito-Hamitic,[4]is a large language familyof about 300 languages. [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [168] Prefixes of - (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [6][7], with the latter two having fallen out of favor in English but still seeing frequent usage in other languages, such as German. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. [12] Each component of this term was derived from the name of a Biblical son of Noah as detailed in the Book of Genesis: Semitic from his first-born son Shem, and Hamitic from his second son Ham (Genesis 5:32). Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. [164] Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. [152], A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. The Semitic line of Afro-Asiatic has the most language sub-sets. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. [128] In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [127], Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. innovation: meaning shift, from avoiding per se to feeling a need or reason to avoid), to wear out, be used up, cease to function, (Eg., Cush., Ch. Therefore the root is considered ktb. When looking for roots it is important to remember that early Semitic only had consonants and vowels had to be inferred from the context (Atlas, p.78-79). ), (Sem., Eg. [45] Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. At the same time, linguistic similarities such as vowel changes help show relationships among languages. [6] Additionally, Joseph Greenberg argued that "Hamitic" has racial connotations, and that the name "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. p-Oti-Volta (p-E. Oti-Voltap-C. Oti-Volta) [64] The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. [99], The majority of AA languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. ), to fit on top of, go above or in front of, (Eg., Sem. innovation: 'not want' > 'not need,' hence 'be sated'), (Eg., Sem. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic ), also known as Hamito-Semitic, [3] or Semito-Hamitic, [4] and sometimes also as Afrasian or Erythraean, [5] are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara / Sahel. [65] In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). Proto-Afroasiatic is a reconstructed language. Natioro p-Khoe innovation: 'increase' > 'grow fat, thicken'), (root #141 + *n n. (abbrev. [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. innovation: 'to rub' > 'to scrape'), (* and *a are reconstructed because they are required in derived root #651 below), (#649 + *r diffus. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. [153][168][h], Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by using pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number and a verbal adjective. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. p-Omotic The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources [198] Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". [87], Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. Olukumi p-Songhay p-Ogoni Nilo-Saharan Also, how do roots work? Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. [195] Writing in 2004, John Huehnergaard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. ; PS, Eg., Ch. The other three are very closely related and it is not hard for, say, a Dane to learn to understand a Swede. [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. >I find it odd how Semitic is still Afroasiatic even though it's tied to a non-E haplogroup Egyptian and Semitic are both J. Cushitic is T and Chadic is J/R1b-V88. [54] These five or six branches remain the academic consensus on the family. There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. [54] Greenberg rejected the Afroasiatic classification of languages that Meinhof had classified as "Hamitic" based on racial and anthropological data. [156] It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;[157] the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well. [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. suff. Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. 4 This was Hodge's term for the ancestral proto-language of Proto-Afroasiatic and Proto-Indo-European based on Proto-Lislakh *lis- 'language' + *laxwos 'people'. V. V. ven. stretching out of arms), (Sem, Eg., Ch., Cush, innovation: 'set on top of' > 'cover'), (Sem., Eg. p-Bua except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the p-Yoruboid Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. xvii + 557. [182], Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. [49], There there are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:[7]. London, Bloomsbury, 1998. Afroasiatic. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. ), (Berber, Eg. p-Semitic, Khoisan p-Fali for expected *ii probably reflects phonetic influence of PC root in #254), (Sem., Eg. [29] Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be endangered of going extinct. [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state."
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