The veneration of some saints, certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. On August 24, 1572, in the midst of celebrations of a marriage between a Catholic princess and. By 1541, the Irish Parliament had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a Lordship to that of Kingdom of Ireland. The Reformation first entered Poland through the mostly German-speaking areas in the country's north. Income differences between Protestants and Catholics. [49][50] Ducal Prussia was followed by many imperial free cities and other minor imperial entities. The adoption of Lutheranism was also one of the main reasons for the eruption of the Dacke War, a peasants uprising in Smland. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity. Although the German Peasants' War of 15241525 began as a tax and anti-corruption protest as reflected in the Twelve Articles, its leader Thomas Mntzer gave it a radical Reformation character. [65] Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. After establishing a colony at Plymouth (which became part of the colony of Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism. While in the middle of the 16th century the nobility mostly sent their sons abroad for education (the new German Protestant universities were important in this regard), by the mid-1600s the nobility mostly stayed home for education. George Mason University's study on the fall of communism states, "Poland is, at first glance, one of the most religiously homogeneous countries on earth. The Counter-Reformation was a period of spiritual, moral, and intellectual revival in the Catholic Church in the 16th and 17th centuries, usually dated from 1545 (the opening of the Council of Trent) to 1648 (the end of the Thirty Years' War). [51] Luther became so angry that he famously carved into the meeting table in chalk Hoc Est Corpus Meuma Biblical quotation from the Last Supper meaning "This is my body". The Counter Reformation saw the Church use art, architecture, music and exploration to ensure that Christians understood that only St. Peter and the Church have the key: Rubens. Greater entrepreneurship among religious minorities in Protestant states. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians. Erasmus and Louis de Berquin who was martyred in 1529), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches. involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church. Further Explanation:- The Counter-Reformation which is also known as Catholic Reformation and known as the period when Catholic Resurgence took place and it started in the response of . The Waldensian Church survived in the Western Alps through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy.[82]. The Protestant Reformation was a religious reform movement that swept through Europe in the 1500s. [92][93][e] Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts and many other fields. The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press. This unit introduces three religious-based reform movements: Protestantism in mainland Europe, Protestantism in England, and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, as well as the subsequent violence they caused. The Counter-Reformation was a religious and political movement that C. involved the creation of new practices and policies in the Catholic Church. ", "Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills", "Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital", "Beyond Work Ethic: Religion, Individual, and Political Preferences", "Does a Protestant work ethic exist? Each year drew new theologians to embrace the Reformation and participate in the ongoing, European-wide discussion about faith. Despite heavy persecution by Henry II, the Reformed Church of France, largely Calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban bourgeoisie and parts of the aristocracy, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. [citation needed], Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to return the church in Bohemia and Moravia to earlier practices: liturgy in the language of the people (i.e. Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son Edward VI, who, through his empowered councillors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and fifteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the chantries. The Counter-Reformation, a movement within the Roman Catholic Church to reform and revive itself. [91] The edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. Austria followed the same pattern as the German-speaking states within the Holy Roman Empire, and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. [29], Despite significant diversity among the early Radical Reformers, some "repeating patterns" emerged among many Anabaptist groups. From 1545, the Catholic Church fought back with a movement of its own - the Counter-Reformation, sending out Jesuit priests to campaign against the spread of Protestantism and convert the populations of the Spanish Empire in the Americas. An agreement reached by the Council of Trent was that. Sascha O. Becker, Steven Pfaff and Jared Rubin. [81] Some also fled to England and Switzerland, including Peter Vermigli. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva. The Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) refers to the widespread religious, cultural, and social upheaval of 16th-century Europe that broke the hold of the medieval Church, allowing for the development of personal interpretations of the Christian message and leading to the development of modern nation-states.It is considered one of the most important events in Western history. From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propagating the Faith) from the Counter-Reformation. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, Christians began to openly criticize the Roman Catholic Church for teaching things contrary to the Bible. They were permitted to sell their immovable property and take their movable property; however, it is still unknown whether they received fair-market value for their lands. At the time there was a difference . Which leader restored the Church of England? Albert, Duke of Prussia formally declared the "Evangelical" faith to be the state religion. The first Protestant congregation was founded in Brest-Litovsk in the Reformed tradition, and the Belarusian Evangelical Reformed Church exists today. [citation needed], The strategy the Catholic Church took towards reconverting the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth differed from its strategy elsewhere. "Toleration, Pluralism, and Coexistence: The Ambivalent Legacies of the Reformation. The theses debated and criticised the Church and the papacy, but concentrated upon the selling of indulgences and doctrinal policies about purgatory, particular judgment, and the authority of the pope. The Kingdom of Navarre, although by the time of the Protestant Reformation a minor principality territoriality restricted to southern France, had French Huguenot monarchs, including Henry IV of France and his mother, Jeanne III of Navarre, a devout Calvinist. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the Crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. Though not personally interested in religious reform, Francis I (reigned 15151547) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, in accordance with his interest in the humanist movement. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the historical rivalry and mistrust between the Greek Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches along with their concerns of Jesuit priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the Counter-Reformation to the Greek populace. Through German trade connections, many young Icelanders studied in Hamburg. The unique government (Poland was a republic where the citizen nobility owned the state) meant the king could not enforce a religious settlement even he if so desired. In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. There were some notable opponents to the Henrician Reformation, such as Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher, who were executed for their opposition. Sigismund, who was also the King of Sweden until deposed, was educated by Jesuits in Sweden before his election as King of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Lucas Cranach the Elder (14721553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. It covered the following five areas: Doctrine (ideology) Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration. After the Heidelberg Disputation (1518) where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation (1519), the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous PolishLithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many religions and Churches, including: Roman Catholics, Byzantine Orthodox, Armenian Oriental Orthodox, Ashkenazi Jews, Karaites, and Sunni Muslims. As it was led by a Bohemian noble majority, and recognised, for some time, by the Basel Compacts, the Hussite Reformation was Europe's first "Magisterial Reformation" because the ruling magistrates supported it, unlike the "Radical Reformation", which the state did not support. Other Protestant movements grew up along the lines of mysticism or humanism (cf. Among the cultural manifestations of the Catholic Reformation in Europe was the development of the Baroque style in Art. Germany was home to the greatest number of Protestant reformers. [25][26] Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war.[27]. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. [38], The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[39], The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[39], A 2020 study linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther (e.g. The apostolic succession was retained in Sweden during the Reformation. Powerful and remarkably well written, The Reformation is possibly the finest available introduction to this hugely important chapter in religious and political history. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Regensburg Article 5 on Justification The Early Reformation in Europe Historical Dictionary of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation The Society of Jesus in Ireland, Scotland, and England 1541-1588 The Career of Cardinal Giovanni Morone (1509-1580) Believe, Obey, Fight Fruits of Migration Venice's Hidden Enemies The Road from Eden [87] However, there are a few popular interpretations. The Protestant Reformation was a sixteenth century religious movement that attempted to reform and diminish the powers of the Roman Catholic Church in Europe, but that later created another branch of religion, Protestantism. [90], Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer (1529), were the first individuals to be called Protestants. Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies, 2001. The Reformation in western and central Europe officially began in 1517 with Martin Luther and his 95 Theses. During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain. Which statement best describes a reform initiated by the Council of Trent? The Reformation foundations engaged with Augustinianism. The quality of the new Catholic schools was so great that Protestants willingly sent their children to these schools. Choose one of these movements and discuss the influence of political, spiritual, or cultural aspects of the movement as well as any subsequent strife (warfare and other forms of violence). The most famous emigration to America was the migration of Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England. Radio Advertisement Imagine that Mr. Noakes has discovered the sunshine over the Hatching's home. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however. This Catholic reform movement is called the Counter-Reformation. Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Catholic party killed between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. There was a big protest against the Christian Church in different parts of Europe and it ultimately resulted in the emergence of the Protestant Christian religion. N. [citation needed]. Czech), having lay people receive communion in both kinds (bread and winethat is, in Latin, communio sub utraque specie), married priests, and eliminating indulgences and the concept of purgatory. The Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish Crown ruled by the Teutonic Knights, emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian. This argument is best articulated in Robert Bireley's The Refashioning of Catholicism. Originally the Reformed Church in Poland included both the Calvinists and the Anti-trinitarians (also known as the Socinians and the Polish Brethren); however, they eventually split due to an inability to reconcile their divergent views on the Trinity. [65] The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. In parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, a majority sympathised with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed . Ultimately Pope Clement VII refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. Four religions were declared to be "accepted" (recepta) religions (the fourth being Unitarianism, which became official in 1583 as the faith of the only Unitarian king, John II Sigismund Zpolya, r. 15401571), while Eastern Orthodox Christianity was "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). They also tried to win back areas of Europe that had been lost to the Catholic Church. According to a 2020 study in the American Sociological Review, the Reformation spread earliest to areas where Luther had pre-existing social relations, such as mail correspondents, and former students, as well as where he had visited. [75] A significant community in France remained in the Cvennes region. The Protestant Reformation Essay. [citation needed], Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the King's Great Matter. Additionally, the Orthodox also sought to join the Catholic Church (accomplished in the Union of Brze [Brest]); however, this union failed to achieve a lasting, permanent, and complete union of the Catholics and Orthodox in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as Constantinople by the start of the 17th century. Protestant teachings were smuggled into Spain by Spaniards such as Julin Hernndez, who in 1557 was condemned by the Inquisition and burnt at the stake. The Church was omnipresent in early-modern European society. From a Catholic perspective, the Second Vatican Council called for an end to the Counter-Reformation. ", This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 07:49. [32][b][22][34] Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534) was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to Modern Standard German. In 1666, the Sejm banned apostasy from Catholicism to any other religion, under penalty of death. They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. [62] In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. During Reformation-era confessionalization, Western Christianity adopted different confessions (Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Anabaptist, Unitarian, etc.). Southern Europe remained predominantly Catholic apart from the much-persecuted Waldensians. Why do you think he points out Walt Whitman's poem so directly? Lutheranism gained a significant following in the eastern half of present-day Austria, while Calvinism was less successful. Zwingli, inspired by Dutch theologian Cornelius Hoen, believed that the Communion bread was only representative and memorialChrist was not present. Their ideas were studied in depth. The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. The Reformation was thus a media revolution. The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. [24] In response to reports about the destruction and violence, Luther condemned the revolt in writings such as Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants; Zwingli and Luther's ally Philipp Melanchthon also did not condone the uprising. [91] Today, Protestantism constitutes the second-largest form of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 800million to 1billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. Different levels of income tax revenue per capita,% of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers. Geneva. This was a debate over the Christian religion. In your own words, restate the advice Ronsard gives Helene in the last two lines of his poem. The Counter-Reformation The Reformation's Legacy The Protestant Reformation was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic. Although Luther preached consubstantiation in the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he believed in the real presence of Christ in the Communion bread. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. As a result, some of them lived as crypto-Protestants, also called Nicodemites, contrary to the urging of John Calvin, who wanted them to live their faith openly. The Reformation not only changed how individuals viewed religion in Europe, but also caused political upheaval. Peace of Augsburg in 1555 officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state. The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the Seventeen Provinces, but instead by multiple popular movements which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. Choose one of these movements and discuss the influence of political, spiritual, or cultural aspects of the movement as well as any subsequent strife (warfare and other forms of violence). It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent Mary of Guise, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent daughter Mary, Queen of Scots (then also Queen of France). John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish reformation. Zwingli was a scholar and preacher who moved to Zrichthe then-leading city statein 1518, a year after Martin Luther began the Reformation in Germany with his Ninety-five Theses. [31] Luther's translation of the Bible promoted the development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. (The Protestant Reformation is divided into magisterial Protestantism, which employed the power of magistrates, and the radical Reformation, which at first ignored and then at times sought to overthrow the existing political order.) Between 1520 and 1550, printing presses in Spain were tightly controlled and any books of Protestant teaching were prohibited. All of Scandinavia ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith. The English Reformation followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe. Jews and Heretics in Catholic Poland: A Beleaguered Church in the Post-Reformation Era. The Lutheran Reformation was started by Martin Luther in 1517 when he wrote and published his Ninety-Five Theses. Harsh persecution of Protestants by the Spanish government of Philip II contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the Eighty Years' War and, eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant Dutch Republic from the Catholic-dominated Southern Netherlands (present-day Belgium). Following the Affair of the Placards, culprits were rounded up, at least a dozen heretics were put to death, and the persecution of Protestants increased. A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith. A challenge to the Church in Rome. [14], The leaders of the Roman Catholic Church condemned him at the Council of Constance (14141417) and he was burnt at the stake, despite a promise of safe-conduct. In 1620, the Battle of White Mountain defeated Protestants in Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) who sought to have the 1609 Letter of Majesty upheld. These Puritan separatists were also known as "the Pilgrims". Following a brief Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary (15531558), a loose consensus developed during the reign of Elizabeth I, though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. Political Dimensions. Although this is generally considered a Protestant belief, a similar formulation was taught by Molinist and Jansenist Catholics. The Catholic Reformation was a religious movement that transpired in the 1500s throughout Europe. [citation needed]. 270286, Atkinson Fitzgerald "Printing, Reformation and Information Control". In 1566, at the peak of Belgian Reformation, there were an estimated 300,000 Protestants, or 20% of the Belgian population.[78]. Ultimately, since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on certain matters of theology (such as double-predestination and Holy Communion), the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists was one of conflict. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its complete failure. Finally, in 1717, the Silent Sejm banned non-Catholics from becoming deputies of the Parliament. [74] In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg declared the Edict of Potsdam (October 1685), giving free passage to Huguenot refugees and tax-free status to them for ten years. Their descendants are still there, such as the Sub-Carpathian Reformed Church. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. A number of theologians in the Holy Roman Empire preached reformation ideas in the 1510s, shortly before or simultaneously with Luther, including Christoph Schappeler in Memmingen (as early as 1513). Corrections? After Habsburgs took control of the region, the Hussite churches were prohibited and the kingdom partially recatholicised. The Peace of Augsburg was later broken by, The Counter-Reformation was a religious and political movement that. The first two Lutheran martyrs were monks from Antwerp, Johann Esch and Heinrich Hoes, who were burned at the stake when they would not recant. Depending on the country, the Reformation had varying causes and different backgrounds and also unfolded differently than in Germany. As Bireley points out, the term "Counter-Reformation" emerged into common discussion of 16th century religion in the 19th century, when a German Protestant historian named Leopold von Ranke wrote History of the Popes. The Reformation was a split in the Latin Christian church instigated by Luther in 1517 and evolved by many others over the next decadea campaign that created and introduced a new approach to Christian faith called ' Protestantism .' The split between Christians in western Europe led to wars as countries struggled with new religious alliances. From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded Germany and much of Europe.[36][c]. In particular, the Thirty Years' War (16181648) devastated much of Germany, killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population. Zwingli countered this saying that est in that context was the equivalent of the word significat (signifies).[52]. This challenge to Papal supremacy resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. Reformation ideas and Protestant church services were first introduced in cities, being supported by local citizens and also some nobles. [19][bettersourceneeded] In response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. Higher public spending on schooling and better educational performance of military conscripts. The document sparked a religious revolution across Europe and . While much of his career was spent furthering the cause of church reform, he became fascinated with the subject of religious art in particular. The Orthodox Period, also termed the, Christians living in principalities where their denomination was. Movements had been made towards a Reformation prior to Martin Luther, so some Protestants, such as Landmark Baptists, and the tradition of the Radical Reformation prefer to credit the start of the Reformation to reformers such as Arnold of Brescia, Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Petr Chelick, and Girolamo Savonarola.