- It has been 22 years since American Airlines Flight 1420 crashed in Little Rock. American Airlines Flight 1420. National Transportation Safety Board 490 L'Enfant Plaza, SW Washington, DC 20594. American Airlines Flight 1420 The flight crew was unable to control Flight 1420 during inclement weather, causing the aircraft to overshoot the runway, crash into a chain-link fence and strike an anchored stanchion in Little Rock, Arkansas. AA1420Little_rock_airplane_web.ogv (Ogg Theora video file, length 1 min 1 s, 320 240 pixels, 104 kbps) Photo: Perfect Storm: The Crash Of American Airlines Flight 1420, Charlotte Douglas International Airport, Chicago O'Hare International Airport, Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Los Angeles International Airport, Miami International Airport, New York JFK Airport, LaGuardia Airport, Philadelphia International Airport, Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, 18 Destinations: AirAsia X's Summer Operations From Kuala Lumpur, Venezuela's Conviasa Announces New Destination In Syria, Moomin Makeover: Finnair Celebrates 100 Years With Special Airbus A350 Livery, Turkish Airlines Airbus A321neo Returns To Istanbul Following Engine Failure, Air Canada Reacts To Proposed Toronto Pearson Flight Limits, Vistara Brand To Discontinue After Merger With Air India. N215AA experianced severe thunderstorms along the flight path. AAR0102. 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About 65 percent of Flight 1420's weight would have been supported by the plane's landing gear if the spoilers had been deployed, but without the spoilers this number dropped to only 15 percent. [1]:21The flight crew also failed to setlanding flaps, another item on the pre-flight checklist, but as the plane descended past 1,000 feet (300m), the first officer realized the flaps were not set and the flight crew set a 40-degree flap setting for landing.[1]:123. American Airlines Flight 1420 departed Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport on June 1, 1999, en route to what is now Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airportin Little Rock (Pulaski County). The aircraft flying the routes was N215AA, delivered to American Airlines in August 1983 and flying since then. And they have responded differently to the federal trial that continues Tuesday and coincides Wednesday with the sixth anniversary of the crash. [1]:13The radar weather system had a forward-looking design that offered the flight crew only a limited field of view in front of the aircraft. American Airlines Flight 1420; References This page was last edited on 27 December 2022, at 20:22 (UTC). "To me, it's important to be there and hear everything that's going on, even though it's very hard.". [1]:116, Flight 1420 was commanded byCaptainRichard Buschmann, age 48, a very experienced chief pilot with 10,234 total flight hours, of which approximately half were accumulated flying the MD-80 series of aircraft. The captain and 10 passengers were killed; the first officer, four flight attendants and 105 passengers were On October 23, 2001, the NTSB issued its determination on the cause of the crash:[1]:169170. Additional support provided by the Charles M. and Joan R. Taylor Foundation Inc. Let's take a look back at this fatal accident. Even the heartbroken father thought the monument would help some of the lingering feelings subside. dC$;Aj&M%X Pass holders were offered terms of five years or lifetime. He, too, was considered to be a competent pilot by colleagues and he had accumulated more than 5,000 flight hours. This occurred at night in stormy weather conditions. She alleges the airport knowingly failed to adhere to runway safety zone standards and that light structures between the end of the runway and the river caused otherwise avoidable deaths. Even Rowe said she needed a break and missed last Thursday's testimony because of the stress of the trial and the anniversary. This became an important factor later. Rapoport Weisberg & Sims P.C.s premieraviation negligence lawyersrepresent victims of commercial and general aviation disasters nationwide. The NTSB released its report in October 2001 and blamed the pilot, Capt. by The plane landed at 8:10 p.m. and the flight to Little Rock was scheduled to depart at 8:28. Thereafter American Airlines reached settlement agreements with a majority of the domestic Plaintiffs. Air Crash Investigations S01E01 - Racing the Storm (American Airlines Flight 1420) LesAvionsdeLigne. The plane continued to slide out of control over more than 800 feet of grass and struck an instrument landing system (ILS) array. +)]M5 PzSgh3sWMU5(K,5w
#{jlST:6wSg?We'3yS33{G5'gh4wZX's*kuj3lVk& |)\xKSq"@h_8Ld^ver]$PkKyO.hl5}W+3hrCX.$6?Ime3C[R7 The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable causes of this accident were the flight crew's failure to discontinue the approach when severe thunderstorms and their associated hazards to flight operations had moved into the airport area and the crew's failure to ensure that the spoilers had extended after touchdown. 1A, 6A. All 68 people aboard were killed in the high speed impact. "We are pleased that the jury did not award punitive damages in this instance, this was a consensual affair that lasted for 8 months," he said. Worth (KDFW) to Little Rock, Arkansas (KLIT) on June 1, 1999. for a free case evaluation or telephone our Chicago office toll free at866-693-3806. On June 1, 1999, theMcDonnell Douglas MD-82operating as Flight 1420overran the runwayupon landing inLittle Rockand crashed. Woods wrote to the jury that while the statement could be read, it would have "no legal or binding effect on this case or any of the issues.". The NTSB investigation also focused on pilot behavior in inclement weather, to determine the impact the storms may have had on the pilots' decision-making process while approaching Little Rock National Airport. American Airlines' attorneys, a mixture of local counsel, from the Barber McCaskill Jones & Hale firm of Little Rock, and New York-based Thompson & Knight, said they were not permitted to comment on the case. At 23:04, the crew of AA1420 were advised of severe thunderstorms in the Little Rock Airport area by ATC but chose to expedite their arrival than divert or return to DFW. Contents [7], The compensatory damages claims proceeded first. Air Crash Investigations - S01E01 - Racing the Storm (American Airlines Flight 1420) Comedy Central. American took prompt action to remedy the violations and prevent future violations, changed its practices for fueling its motor vehicles to ensure that proper diesel fuel is used, and certified that it was now in full compliance with the diesel fuel provisions. The affair began nine days after the crash while Struthers was still on his Customer Assistance Relief Effort, or CARE, Team assignment. On June 1, 1999, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82 (registration number N215AA Photo: The aircraft was completely destroyed in the crash. [1]:10The first officer had been with the airline for less than a year, and had only 182 hours of flight time with American Airlines as an MD-80 pilot. The flight crew failed to arm the automaticspoilersystem, which automatically moves the spoiler control lever and deploys the spoilers upon landing. American Airlines Flight 1420was a flight fromDallas/Fort Worth International Airport(DFW) toLittle Rock National Airportin the United States. 9:56. Chicago, IL 60602, 2023 Rapoport Weisberg & Sims P.C. T. American Airlines Flight 965 was a regularly scheduled flight from Miami International Airport in Miami, Florida, to Alfonso Bonilla Aragn International Airport in Cali, Colombia.On December 20, 1995, the Boeing 757-200 flying this route (registration N651AA) crashed into a mountain in Buga, Colombia, around 9:40 pm killing 151 of the 155 passengers and all eight crew members. American Airlines Flight 1420 crashed 23 years ago today, on June 1st, 1999. 0 references. Safety issues discussed in this report focus on flight crew Flight 1420 . The punitive damages claim concerned a sexual affair with an American Airlines employee, Jim Struthers, who was sent to care for Chu in Little Rock after the June 1, 1999, crash at Little Rock National Airport, Adams Field. Woods wrote back that Chu's attorney fees would come out of her settlement and the court costs would be paid by the losing party. Avianca Flight 52 was a regularly scheduled flight from Bogot to New York via Medelln, Colombia. On the afternoon of August 2, 1985, Delta Air Lines Flight 191 crashed while on a routine approach to Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, killing 8 of 11 crew members, 126 of 152 passengers on board, and one person on the ground. [1]:42The NTSB also conducted ground tests on similar aircraft, including another American Airlines MD-80 for which the autospoiler system failed to deploy during a runway overrun, an event inPalm Springs, Californiathat did not result in destruction of the aircraft. "We're trying to blame everybody else, but no judge, no jury is going to be able to clear the pilot's name with me because he was the one in control when we went off that runway," said Rowe, who settled her own damage suit against the airline out of court but has been to all but one day of this month's trial. But corporate spokesman John Hotard issued a statement from American's Fort Worth headquarters saying that the company was happy with the verdict. ", Read more about this topic: American Airlines Flight 1420, The trouble with Eichmann was precisely that so many were like him, and that the many were neither perverted nor sadistic, that they were, and still are, terribly and terrifyingly normal. For additional information: When Debra Sattari boarded American Airlines Flight 1420 on Tuesday, she hoped a new Internet romance would blossom into the real thing when she reached Little Rock. The airplane was destroyed by impact forces and a postcrash fire. The aircraft then collided with a structure built to support the approach lights for Runway 22L, which extended out into theArkansas River. Chu and the other domestic passengers are to share in a separate punitive damage award to be determined later. Contents 1 Aircraft 2 Flight crew 3 Flight and weather conditions 4 Crash 5 Investigation TheNational Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)investigated the crash. Ten passengers and the pilot were killed. Air crash investigation. Cheapest flight: $1,420: Average price round-trip: $1,813: Good deal round-trip: $881: Best time to beat the crowds with an average 34% drop in price. ]U 1JKU&={,kFDF'^tCcLOoZmSj9gp ]t&^BL"I;0qFo.3 `_[=Y0-}_%-OY
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The NTSB report cited fatigue as a contributing factor. "I felt like last year, with the memorial, for a lot of people that I know and for me, that was a time when we could put it to rest," Ozmun said. Speaking with Little Rock Air Traffic Control at 11:34, the pilots were informed of a thunderstorm northwest of the airport with wind measuring at twenty-eight knots and gusts up to forty-four knots. 1A, 7A. Experienced at flying theBoeing 727for American, he transitioned to flying the twin-engineMcDonnell Douglas MD-80series in 1991. Rapoport Weisberg & Sims P.C. Unable to directly approach the aircraft due to lower elevation at the end of the runway, the trucks had to backtrack to an access road and approach the crash. Aircraft Accident Report - Runway Overrun During Landing American Airlines Flight 1420, McDonnell Douglas MD-82, N215AA , Little Rock, Arkansas, June 1, 1999. Originally set to land on runway 22L, the aircrew requested to land on runway 4R instead, which would allow the aircraft to land with a headwind instead of a tailwind. And now, Buschmann's lawsuit has shifted the focus back to blame _ and from blaming the pilot and the airline to blaming the airport. The jury has spoken about who was to blame for the 1999 crash of an American Airlines jet that killed 11 people, but the National Transportation Safety Board isn't listening. The AP will not be held liable for any delays, inaccuracies, errors or omissions therefrom or in the transmission or delivery of all or any part thereof or for any damages arising from any of the foregoing. That's not something Ozmun wants to get wrapped up in. This report explains the accident involving American Airlines flight 1420, a McDonnell Douglas MD-82, which crashed after it overran the end of runway 4R during landing at Little Rock National Airport in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Flight 1420 Memorial is located in Little Rock south of the airport on East Roosevelt Road near the Business and Industry Center of the University of ArkansasPulaski Technical College. Chu, a former stockbroker's assistant at Morgan Keegan, took medical disability from her job last year after she could not complete simple clerical tasks because of confusion, disorientation and mood instability. AA1420 crashed in 1999 and led to important changes around pilot response to storms. [1]:12, The aircraft was equipped withX-bandweather radar, which is susceptible toattenuationduring heavy precipitation, and did not have an attenuation alert to warn the flight crew of system impairment during heavy rainfall. Merryman, Jon. In the only liability trial arising out of the crash of flight 1420, a federal jury in Little Rock awarded Captain Buschmann's family $2 million in wrongful death damages in a lawsuit they filed against the Little Rock National Airport. "[8]These three Plaintiffs pursued but ultimately lost their claims for punitive damages. ", According to a comment made about 10 years after the crash by David Rapoport, a lawyer who was a member of the PSC, "after all these years is still a matter reasonable people who are fully informed may disagree on", however, there should be consensus "flight operations should not be conducted in the terminal area when thunderstorms are on the flight path; and non-frangible objects should not be placed where it is foreseeable an aircraft may go. File usage on Commons. 817-302-2272 14600 Trinity Blvd., Suite 500 Fort Worth, TX 76155-2512 The largest jury awards were for survivors from the Ouachita Baptist University college choir,. The NTSB has not reconsidered its probable cause finding that focused completely on pilot error., While people on both sides of the debate have facts to support their arguments, in Rapoports opinion: We should all be able to agree that from a safety standpoint, flight operations should not be conducted in the terminal area when thunderstorms are on the flight path, and non-frangible objects should not be placed where it is foreseeable aircraft may go.. Thereafter American Airlines reached settlement agreements with a majority of the domestic Plaintiffs.". 19990601-0. However, 1) the National Transportation Safety Board has not changed its probable cause ruling and 2) American Airlines admitted liability for the crash and "paid many millions of dollars in damages to the passengers and their families. The evidence provides no clear explanation for why the flight crew failed to deploy the spoilers. David Sesser +Z[ )cq{h.Px5`k3l;#%MK3;B;J_TI~uk;b*kg][K[)]9l"'ibV8>yEg7yIa 4|{tDS%0))CSa|}|EBS$J7(Q-F`EQwGE9mPdi5|CN(nkBB9x[Z
V~J_kR(:QqspfJTIwO# ;Y,$5? The final NTSB report cited pilot error in choosing to land in a thunderstorm and not following the prelanding checklist. Aviation Safety Network accident ID. Associated Press text, photo, graphic, audio and/or video material shall not be published, broadcast, rewritten for broadcast or publication or redistributed directly or indirectly in any medium. National Transportation Safety Board report ID. Little Rock, AR. The 190 passengers of American Airlines' Flight 1774 boarded the plane last week in an orderly manner and took their seats for an approximately two-hour ride from Dallas-Fort Worth to Charlotte. The pilots of flight 1420 were Captain Richard Buschmann and First Officer Michael Origel. The Ouachita Singers, a performance group from Ouachita Baptist University (OBU), were on the flight returning from a trip to Europe. hVn@yG:+!$J[(hX{l.mVsf
LfB#Gr&S,dbI=^w7c}j/:hgM7Q\~~vIwuur}{T1ikaPeNW Jury foreman Barbara Hill received permission from U.S. District Judge Henry Woods to read the statement in open court after the midafternoon verdict. [1]:3Despite the excessive crosswind and two wind-shear reports, Captain Buschmann did not abandon the aircraft's approach into Little Rock, instead deciding to continue the approach to 4R. American Airlines Flight 1420 is an excellent example of James Reason's Swiss Cheese Model of accident causation, whereby causal factors in an accident slowly slip by preventative measures until they compound into a preventable accident. [9], In the only liability trial arising out of the crash of Flight 1420, a federal jury in Little Rock awarded Captain Buschmann's family $2 million in wrongful-death damages following a lawsuit they had filed against Little Rock National Airport. [11]The jury rejected the airport's argument that Buschmann was at fault in causing his own death. For example, passengers traveling on international tickets were prohibited by an international treaty (theWarsaw Convention) from recovering punitive damages. He held the rank of lieutenant colonel with the USAir Force Reserve Command, and was hired by American Airlines in July 1979. American Eagle Flight 4184 was a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Indianapolis, Indiana to Chicago, Illinois, United States. From the beginning Judge Woods separated the passenger cases into two groups: domestic and international passengers, because different laws governed the rights of the claimants in each category. It found that Struthers was acting within the scope of his employment. Facing new regulations from the Environmental Protection Agency and the Securities and Exchange Pioneer's Sheffield "optimistic well get back into the $90-100 range sometime earlier this summer". Text is available under the Creative . Creating an account gives you access to all these features. ?On June 1, 1999, at 2350:44 central daylight time, American Airlines flight 1420, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-82 (MD-82), N215AA, crashed after it overran the end of runway 4R during landing at Little Rock National Airport in Little Rock, Arkansas. Copyright 2001, Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, Inc. All rights reserved. File history. From the viewpoint of our legal institutions and of our moral standards of judgment, this normality was much more terrifying than all the atrocities put together.Hannah Arendt (19061975), I can never bring you to realize the importance of sleeves, the suggestiveness of thumb-nails, or the great issues that may hang from a boot-lace.Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (18591930). American Airlines Flight 1420 was a flight from Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport to Little Rock National Airport in USA. 45:00. American Airlines Flight 1420 crashed 23 years ago today, on June 1st, 1999. [1]:116As a result, Flight 1420 faced away from the airport for several minutes, and because the plane's weather radar had a narrow and forward-facing field of view, the flight crew could not see thunderstorms approaching the airport during their turn. The MD-82 crashed into the security fence 800 meters from the end of the runway and then sit the support light structure. Hillary and I were saddened to learn of the terrible crash landing of American Airlines Flight 1420 at Little Rock National Airport late last night. They are both survivors of the crash June 1, 1999, at Little Rock National Airport that killed 11. [1]:157The report states that sleep deprived individuals are likely to try the same method of problem solving again and again without looking at alternative options. 72201. The largest jury awards were for survivors from the Ouachita Baptist University college choir, who were returning on Flight 1420 from a trip to Europe. "As for the jury's recommendation, our care program is under revision now and we will certainly take the jury's recommendation into consideration as we strengthen the program," he said. [1]:11, Flight 1420 was scheduled to depart DFW at 20:28Central Daylight Timeand arrive in Little Rock at 21:41. . 28 October 2013. American airlines flight 1420. Richard Buschmann, for attempting the landing in a dangerous thunderstorm and for failing to deploy wing spoilers. . is a personal injury law firm based in Chicago, Illinois. Flight and weather conditions Flight 1420 was scheduled to depart DFW at 20:28 Central Daylight Time and arrive in Little Rock at 21:41. From the NTSB report one can conclude that there were several human factors that contributed to the . Black dots indicate the 87 passengers and crew who are known. The reverse thrust and brakes did little to slow the aircraft and only caused a loss of directional control. Ten passengers and the pilot died in the crash or from injuries suffered in the event. Fuller, a student at Arkadelphia High School, was the daughter of the groups director and accompanist. The first was failing to arm the automatic spoiler system and automatic braking system. Eight of the nine crew members and 65 of the 149 passengers on board were killed. [1]:1However, the flight crew was advised before boarding that the departure would be delayed, and that theNational Weather Servicehad issued in-flight weather advisories indicating severe thunderstorms along the planned flight path. [1]:47[4]First Officer Origel, three of the four flight attendants, and 41 passengers sustained serious injuries, the remaining flight attendant and 64 passengers sustained minor injuries, and 24 passengers sustained no injuries.[1]:47. From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository. On 1 June 1999, American Airlines Flight 1420 tries to land at the Little Rock National Airport during a storm, but overruns the runway, killing 11 people. This field is for validation purposes and should be left unchanged. The jury gave Nancy what was fair and reasonable, and they sent a message to American Airlines," Branson said, adding that he is looking forward to the next phase of the Chu case, which concerns a larger punitive issue, whether or not American provided the highest degree of care in dispatch and operation of Flight 1420. By contrast, Ozmun isn't looking for more answers at the latest trial. Donations made to the CALS Foundation are tax-deductible for United States federal income tax purposes. (APA) serves as the certified collective bargaining agent for the 15,000 professional pilots who fly for American Airlines. The content published on this website was not written by medical professionals and should not, at any point, be mistaken for medical advice. [1]:23, Air traffic control at Little Rock had originally told Flight 1420 to expect an approach to runway 22L. It has been stated the jury verdict completely absolved Captain Buschmann of all fault for the crash. As you can see, we all have mistakes. 100 Rock Street Alumni profile: Flight 1420 Crash. Ouachita Stories, Ouachita Baptist University, February 27, 2020. https://obu.edu/stories/circle/2020-winter/alumni-profile-flight-1420-crash.php (accessed November 15, 2022). But we can improve our skills due to mistakes. AA1420Little rock airplane web.ogv. [1]:159The collision with the sturdy structure crushed the airplane's nose and destroyed the left side of the plane's fuselage, from the cockpit back to the first two rows of coach seating. American Airlines Penerbangan 1420 merupakan sebuah penerbangan terjadwal American Airlines dari Dallas menuju Little Rock pada 1 Juni 1999. . [1]:3The flight crew discussed the weather reports but decided to expedite the approach rather than diverting to the designated alternate airport (Nashville International Airport) or returning to DFW. Aircraft [ edit] N215AA, the aircraft involved in the accident, at George Bush Intercontinental Airport, one year before the crash. Ly 6GAF!Zex NVt'i?{89StjG f!gK!FbZ+;#Ld7!G"5D/GH&\h`;m{uNF/3WTq14#
z= [3], The flight'sfirst officerwas Michael Origel, age 35. The District Court granted summary judgment in American Airlines' favor on punitive damages, finding under Arkansas law the evidence was insufficient to submit the issue to a jury to decide. Air crash investigations : Egyptair flight 990 - part2. 2023 Encyclopedia of Arkansas. American Airlines Flight 1420 Diarsipkan 2013-02-28 di Wayback Machine. The flight landed in Dallas thirty-nine minutes behind schedule due to a weather delay on the approach into DFW. Under the Warsaw Convention, passengers returning from international flights are barred from seeking punitive damage. We join the American people in extending our deepest sympathies to the families of those who died or were injured. Flight 1420 carried 145 individuals: 139 passengers, two pilots and four flight attendants. Experts from theMassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)performed a study recording behavior of pilots landing at Dallas/Fort Worth Airport,[1]:142which aimed to see whether pilots were willing to land in thunderstorms. The auto spoiler, which is designed to slow an aircraft, was not armed and thus did not automatically deploy upon landing. While the punitive claim did not net Chu money, the jury found it had some merit. We agree with the PSC, though, that a reasonable jury could find that the flight crew's decision to land the plane during conditions of high winds and low visibility led to a situation in which they were distracted from deploying the spoilers. If you can, provide 1-2 sources of information backing up this correction. Animation. A variety of contributable actions and conditions ultimately lined up to create the opportunity for a . The 23-year-old . Pranjal is enthusiastic about new aircraft types and has his stories regularly picked up by renowned publications including Forbes. Copyright 2023, Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, Inc. American Airlines Flight 1420 was a flight from Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport to Little Rock National Airport in USA. This project is funded in part by a National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) Sustaining the Humanities through the American Rescue Plan grant award. American Airlines Flight 1420 The flight crew was unable to control Flight 1420 during inclement weather, causing the aircraft to overshoot the runway, crash into a chain-link fence and strike an anchored stanchion in Little Rock, Arkansas. As the aircraft landed, it ran off the end of the runway and broke apart. Flight 1420 departed from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Texas, about 2240 with 2 flight crewmembers, 4 flight attendants, and 139 passengers aboard and touched down in Little Rock at 2350:20. She acknowledged becoming emotionally invested in the trial's outcome. Multiple hospitals treated survivors, including Arkansas Childrens Hospital, Arkansas Heart Hospital, Baptist Medical Center, St. Vincent Hospital, and the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) Medical Center. For Ozmun, a video production instructor who was filming the OBU choir trip, the court cases did nothing to ease the pain of losing students and a close colleague's young daughter. So, we can't avoid them at all. American Airlines settled several of them and others went to trial to determine how much the airline should pay in compensatory damages. LITTLE ROCK A complete list of the passengers and crew aboard American Airlines Flight 1420, with hometowns where available. 2:57. The weather, along with confusion about the exact location of the aircraft, led to the crash being discovered at 12:01 a.m. when firefighters saw the burning plane in the distance. Contents "The structures prevented the plane from going into the river and we don't know what would have happened then, but what actually did happen included the death of the daughter of one of my best friends," said Ozmun, who managed to escape the crash with only minor injuries because he was sitting in the exit row. Two people also died more than 30 days after the crash, bringing the total fatalities to 137. Due to the hurried decision to land, the crew missed two crucial prelanding steps. But . Pre-European Exploration, Prehistory through 1540, European Exploration and Settlement, 1541 through 1802, Louisiana Purchase through Early Statehood, 1803 through 1860, Civil War through Reconstruction, 1861 through 1874, Post-Reconstruction through the Gilded Age, 1875 through 1900, Early Twentieth Century, 1901 through 1940, World War II through the Faubus Era, 1941 through 1967, Divergent Prosperity and the Arc of Reform, 19682022, Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airport, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS), University of ArkansasPulaski Technical College, https://obu.edu/stories/circle/2020-winter/alumni-profile-flight-1420-crash.php, https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/AAR0102.pdf, Divergent Prosperity and the Arc of Reform (1968-2022).
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